Mental health ( paramedic ) Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Mental health ( paramedic ) - Case Study Example In this contemporary environment, people are deemed to be engaged with their daily work due to which they have minimum time to take care of their health (Simpson & et. al., 2010; 127-139). However, in the process of meeting their professional and personal obligation, they acquire lots of behavioural and psychological stress, which further result in severe health complication. The increasing number of chronic health disorder reflects a clear picture of the contemporary society with regard to health and well being. Contextually, this particular essay provides an elaborative discussion about a particular case that is relevant to healthcare complication of any individual. Furthermore, the provided case will be analysed elaborately by providing the facts and prominent elements that are accountable for such adverse health condition. An 18 year old female with health complication of shortness of breath has been dispatched from university on a particular day. During her health complication, University lecturers and her classmates have assisted her to an ambulance. She complained about problems relating to nauseous and lack of strength, which was probably owing to the aspect that she had little sleep for the past few weeks. In this regard, she had visited the local doctor around 3 times for the last few weeks. The local doctor has conducted medical tests such as blood check up, X-ray and ultra sound. While she was awaiting for the report of the test, her illness was more severe due to vomiting, weakness, sleeping issues and increasing issues of short of breath among others. She was also unable to conduct her daily work that includes going to the university, local pub and joining her music band among others. She began to deteriorate in terms of health both mentally and physically with time. The case mainly highlighted some of the facts relevant to the health complications of an 18 year old lady. It

College app Essay Example for Free

College app Essay 1. Obtain applications. Applications can be obtained online at college websites; downloadable and electronic applications are now available at most college websites. In fact, most colleges now prefer that applicants complete their online application (as opposed to the printable paper application), as it is more efficient for them and for you. Application fees may be waived by some schools if you use the electronic applications. However, if you would like to complete the application by hand, you may obtain a printable version online or by calling, writing, or emailing to request an application and information. Some applications are available in the Career Center (check with Ms. Roth). NOTE: Students are responsible for completing and mailing their college applications, essays, and processing fees to the college to which they are applying. All of your application â€Å"pieces† do not have to be mailed at the same time. As materials are received, the colleges will create â€Å"your† file. After submitting applications, you will want to follow up with each college to make sure that they have received all â€Å"pieces† of your application so that they can begin to evaluate your application. 2. Schedule a Senior Interview with your Counselor. Counselors will be meeting individually with you to discuss your post-graduation plans and to discuss how they can help you with the process and with your plans. If you are applying Early Decision or Early Action schedule a conference in SEPTEMBER. 3. Complete your Activity Sheet, Counselor Recommendation Brag Sheet and Parent Brag Sheets. Pick up the brag sheets and an example of an Activity sheet from your school counselor, Career Center or on Family Connection in the Document Library section. 4. Students must complete an Annandale High School Transcript Request and Release of Records form at least three weeks prior to the college’s application deadline in order to give our student services staff ample time to process your transcript and/or letter of recommendation. This form can be retrieved from Ms. Garman in the Office of Student Services or in the Family Connection Document Library. Once completed and signed by you and your parent, the form should be returned to Ms. Garman along with the following for each college you’re applying to: The college’s Secondary School Report Form (if required), a typed copy of your Activity Sheet, an AHS envelope address to the college’s Office of Admission and TWO stamps. If applying to more than 3 schools a $5. 00 fee is required for each additional school. Once the process is completed, your information will be mailed from our office to the colleges to which you’re applying. 5. Obtain teacher or counselor recommendations. Students should refer to each college’s application to find out how many recommendations are required, if any. Not all schools require a recommendation. For Teacher recommendations, students must give the teacher one self-addressed, stamped envelope for EACH school to which they are applying. The teacher will then mail the recommendation directly to each college. Again, Please be sure to give them at least 3 weeks notice on getting a letter of recommendation out. We recommend that Juniors ask their teachers if they’d be willing to write them a letter of recommendation for college at the end of their Junior year. For Counselor recommendations, students should fill out the Counselor Recommendation Brag Sheet and attach a typed or written Activity sheet or Resume of Activities. In addition, the student’s parent or guardian must fill out the Parent Information Sheet. Please be very detailed when filling out these forms. When finished, these forms should be given to your counselor at least three weeks prior to the college’s application deadline. Please note that your counselor will not write a letter of recommendation until these forms are received and a senior meeting has been held. 6. Register for all admissions tests†¦SAT I, SAT II, ACT, and TOEFL. Fee waivers are available for students who receive free or reduced Lunch. Please ask your school counselor for a test fee waiver. Colleges require that student test scores be sent directly to them via Collegeboard (www. collegeboard. com) or ACT (www. act. org) or TOEFL (www. toefl. org). You may send your scores free of charge to a maximum of 4 schools if they are sent within the designated window of opportunity. You will have to pay a fee for any additional scores sent. 7. Begin Scholarship searches NOW! Do not wait until you have been accepted to college to begin your search for money! A good place to start would be scholarship database in Family Connection under the â€Å"College Tab† if you don’t know where this is, see Ms. Roth in the Career Center. 8. Keep organized. Put each school’s materials in its own folder and create a check list for each application. Identify deadlines!!! Remember that application deadlines and financial aid deadlines are often times different dates. 9. Don’t succumb to Senioritis! Don’t stop working after you have been accepted; you have been accepted to a college provided you finish out your second semester satisfactorily! Colleges are not afraid to change their mind on their decision to accept you. 10. RELAX! DON’T STRESS OUT! If you are, please see your counselor or Mrs. Roth in the Career Center for help with the process.

How Does The Carbon Cycle Work Environmental Sciences Essay

How Does The Carbon Cycle Work Environmental Sciences Essay The carbon cycle can be defined as the continuous biological process through which the carbon is exchanged between the environment and the organisms. It also refers to the thermonuclear reactions which are brought about by nucleus of a carbon -12 atom when it absorbs protons. The sporadic climate changes being experienced in the world today are attributable to the disruption of carbon cycle in one way or the other. Top of the possible causes of this disruption are human activities. Nations are reluctant to accept their share of blame on the whole issue leading to a blame game. Unless the world unites against this common cause, the worst is expected to come. This paper covers the carbon cycle, how it works and how its changing in response to human activities. Carbon is found in the atmosphere in form of the carbon dioxide gas. Other atmosphere gases which contain carbon dioxide include chlorofluorocarbons and methane. The lack or the improper functioning of this cycle can be very dreadful since plants and animals entirely depend on this cycle during their major biological processes. The work of the carbon cycle can be evaluated or assessed in accordance to the different processes that change or move carbon from one form to another. These processes are namely decomposition, photosynthesis, natural weathering of rocks, respiration and the ignition of fossil fuels. During the process of photosynthesis carbon which remains in the atmosphere as the carbon dioxide gas enters into the network of consumers and producers or what is referred to as the ecological food web. After its entry the photosynthetic organisms (algae, plants) absorb the carbon dioxide through the tiny pores found in their leaves. Via photosynthesis the plants can now use the absorbed carbon dioxide and convert it into simple sugars which are essential in the plants growth and reproduction. Plants also pass carbon to the animals especially when the animals feed o the plants since they do not have the ability to make their own food (Ryn and Cowan 87). Respiration process is also found in the carbon cycle but it is unlike photosynthesis because it occurs in the decomposers, plants and animals. The respiration process also produces carbon because the component of oxygen is used in breaking down organic compounds into the carbon dioxide gas and water. Through this process of respiration carbon atoms which start out as the compounds of carbon dioxide are absorbed through the body of human organism and then passed to the atmosphere ready for another recycling. Decomposition happens to be the major process through which carbon is passed to the atmosphere in form of carbon dioxide. This is achieved through the use of decomposers (micro-organisms) which are mainly found in soil and water. These decomposers usually take in dead and waste products which are mainly found in form of rotting remains of animals and plants. At the same time they release carbon dioxide through the process of respiration. As earlier stated, weathering of rocks is the other process through which carbon atoms are released. For example the lime rock (an ocean floor stone formed by marine plankton shells) traps many carbon atoms. These carbon atoms are released sometimes after a million years when the ocean waters recede and the lime rock becomes exposed. Scientifically, its noted that when a lime rock is set out to the natural process of weathering it releases the already trapped atoms becomes a very active part of the carbon cycle once. Human activities/processes also increase the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. One of these activities is the combustion of the fossils fuels. Due to the rapid expansion of industrial revolution many people have been burning the fuels which contain oil and coal to power their engines. The constant production of these fuels has resulted into huge amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Most of the carbon dioxide produced by the combustion of these fuels is however absorbed by plants, oceans and soils thus reducing the increasing effects of global warming (Scienceclarified.com 1). The human activities that influence the carbon cycle Human activities have greatly interfered with the processes involved in the carbon cycle. An example of these human activities is deforestation. Deforestation is the removal of natural occurring forests through cutting and burning of trees in any forested area. People cut trees to use them as fuel, to use the land for pasture, farming and to build settlements. Active deforestation means that there will be no trees which emit oxygen while consuming carbon components (carbon dioxide). This leads to increased carbon dioxide than its consumed thus destroying the carbon cycle. The increase in carbon components in the air results into global warming (excessive heating o the earths and oceans surface). This excessive heating results into dried rivers or decreased volumes of water in the earths surface because the hydrological cycle will be affected by higher rates of precipitation (Miller 217). According to White (1203), the ecologies have greatly been changed by overgrazing, terracing, irrigation and the cutting of trees. For example he says that the Romans used to cut trees to build ships which were used to fight Carthaginians. He also states that the banks on the lower parts of the river Nile are now a human artifact instead of the African jungle which nature could have created instead of man. He also talks of historic ecological change which has been caused by the agricultural invention. Farming prompts deforestation because there must be cutting down of trees to create more space for farming. This ecological change will be contributed by the increase of carbon components in the air since the forest cover is not available. The green house kind of farming is one of the major agricultural contributors to the disruption of the carbon cycle. This is because the green houses emit gases which are not utilized thus bringing about global warming. Some of the gases emitted inclu de the form of carbon referred to as chlorofluorocarbons. It therefore transpires that the amount of the carbon produced is higher than the amounts consumed. Another human activity which has contributed immensely to the disruption of the carbon cycle is the combustion of fuels. This is because of the increased burning of fuels emits huge amounts of carbon components. This will lead to greater volumes of carbon dioxide in the air which will not be consumed thus making the carbon cycle in effective. White (1204) states that by 1925, London had experienced a smog problem which was caused by the continuous burning of soft coal. He also suggests that the current combustion of fossil fuels is high up to the point of threatening to change the worlds atmosphere as a whole. White also suggests that war was another human activity which resulted in to ecological changes including the disruption of the carbon cycle. He asserts that the first cannon were fired in the early 14th century and this affected the ecology because workers were forced to the forests and mountains to scramble for more, sulfur, potash, iron ore and charcoal where by some resulte d into erosion and deforestation. He also warns that a war fought with hydrogen bombs can alter the genetics of life. For example it will affect the processes of the carbon cycle between human beings and plants. According to Mackenzie (1), fishing and whaling activities will affect the global carbon cycle. This is because the continuous removal of the marine biota has resulted into increased atmospheric carbon dioxide. She also suggests that the rise of carbon dioxide or carbon has been caused by progressive fishing which has caused biomass depletion of the worlds ocean. Nowadays, the marine productivity is now relatively lower than it used to be when there was a maintained carbon balance in the ocean-atmosphere. Another form of human activities which have influenced the flow of the carbon cycle is air conditioning and refrigeration. This is because they utilize the carbon available in the air which is in form of chlorofluorocarbon thus inhibiting the continuity of carbon cycle between plants and animals. These human activities are however very important in the world because they reduce the effects of global warming by absorbing the extra carbon available in the air. Another human activity t hat has influenced the carbon cycle is the conversion of wild lands and agricultural lands into settlements. These human settlements are the major contributors to the increased emissions of the global carbon dioxide. They affect the carbon cycle through the direct emissions of the carbon dioxide resulting from combustion of fuels, the alterations of the plant and carbon cycles during the conversion of wild lands to urban and residential land cover and the indirect effects of urban and residential land cover on energy use ecosystem carbon cycling. In human settlements the soil carbon is lost through the soil disturbances caused by the conversion from natural to urban or sub-urban land cover type. The conversion of well settled and managed land cover into human settlements results into higher rates of carbon sequestration and storage due to large inputs of fertilizer, water and organic matter (Pataki et al 1). Works cited Carbon cycle Science clarified. Retrieved on 27th January 2010 from http://www.scienceclarified.com/Ca-Ch/Carbon-Cycle.html Mackenzie, Debbie. THE EFFECTS OF FISHING AND WHALING ACTIVITIES ON THE GLOBAL CARBON CYCLE, 2001. Retrieved on 27th January 2010 from http://www.fisherycrisis.com/strangelove.html Miller Tyler. Living in the Environment: Principles, Connection. Stamford: Cengage Learning, 2008 Pataki, Diane. Human settlements and the North American carbon cycle, 2006. Retrieved on 27th January 2010 from http://www.climate.noaa.gov/ccsp/22_SOCCR_Chapter14.pdf Ryn, Sim, and Cowan, Stuart. Ecological design. Washington: Island press, 1996 White, Lynn. The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis, Vol 155 (number 3767), march 10 1967, pp 1203-1207. Cycle Human Settlements and the North

HMO Regulation Essay -- essays research papers

HMO Regulation Health Maintenance Organizations, or HMO’s, are a very important part of the American health care system. Also referred to as managed care programs, HMO's are combinations of doctors and insurance companies that are formed into one organization. This organization provides treatment to its members at fixed costs and decides on what treatment, if any, will be given based on the patient's or doctor's current health plan. Sometimes, no treatment is given at all. HMO's main concerns are to control costs and supposedly provide the best possible treatment to their patients. But it seems to the naked eye that instead their main goal is to get more people enrolled so that they can maintain or raise current premiums paid by consumers using their service. For HMO's, profit comes first- not patients' lives. HMO’s are groups of doctors hired by insurance companies and are usually controlled or regulated by the hospitals who facilitate them. The majority of this limitation is due to pressure from within the organization or government pressure. The government influences hospitals into denying treatment in order to cut federal costs. These government actions generally result in a revision of private employee health care claims, and in turn certain businesses can no longer afford to provide health insurance for their employees. Consequently, approximately 50 to 60 million people go without insurance for at least one month each year. Many HMO’s constantly evaluate their services to "ensure" the best care and coverage. But in many cases, what is happening is the exact opposite. HMO's can and do conduct their business quite ruthlessly. Patients are continuously unable to receive the necessary treatment due to the insufficient HMO coverage. Many HMO's actually make more money if their doctors see or treat fewer patients. According to the Associated Press, â€Å"Consumers who have been denied a treatment that the HMO says is not covered, or who inadvertently fail to follow HMO guidelines in seeking treatment and are therefore denied reimbursement, will continue to have little recourse.† (2) Many people must drive for hours, generally sick or injured, simply to receive treatment from a doctor that will be covered by their HMO. Another downfall to HMO coverage is selective-contracting. This is a process where hospitals deny treatment to patients because their... ...ts to cover their mistakes. This is the exact opposite of what the country needs. Why should costs go up because of denied treatment? The big concern is whether or not government really understands the great difficulty in trying to control HMO’s and other health care programs without a nationalized program. Since there are some 6 million people using Medicare in HMO’s something needs to be done to ensure these patients the treatment that they need. In conclusion, there still needs to be a lot of work done to health care in the United States. Other nations provide universal health care to their citizens, but this would cause dilemmas in balancing two often conflicting policy goals: providing the public with equitable access to needed pharmaceuticals while controlling the costs. Universal health care probably would not work in the U.S. because our nation is so diverse and our economy is so complex. The system we have now obviously has its problems, and there is a lot of rom for improvement. HMO’s will still create problems for people and their medical bills, but they definitely should be monitored to see that their patients are receiving just treatment.

There Is Another Sky

Poem: There is another sky by Emily Dickinson There is another sky, Ever serene and fair, And there is another sunshine, Though it be darkness there; Never mind faded forests, Austin, Never mind silent fields — Here is a little forest, Whose leaf is ever green; Here is a brighter garden, Where not a frost has been; In its unfading flowers I hear the bright bee hum: Prithee, my brother, Into my garden come! * Theme: depression, death * Imagery: Visual imagery * Tone: dark * She is inviting people into her â€Å"garden,† perfectly.I think that the poem itself can be interpreted as a forest that is always green since when you write something down it's going to stay that way. However, I think that what Emily really tries to refer to is her soul of warmth and compassion which always wants to offer itself to those who are suffering. I think that this is the true forest that is never withered or cold because it's always there. Even with her dead, one gets a sense that if this type of compassion can exist from a person then at least someone at some point cared.Emily had a very special spirit in my opinion and a searingly powerful inner beauty – almost one that is so full of this inner radiance that it spills out for others as well. And the very act of trying to reach out to another and show him/her how deeply you care is enough to comfort a person and invite them into that warm acreage of soothing. Austin is her brother. It is him she is talking to throughout the whole poem. Prithee means prey thee, so the line is ‘prey thee, my brother, Into my garden come! ‘ She is praying for her brohter to come in to her world of peace and tranquilty rather than stay in his dark one.

The Bostonians essays

The Bostonians essays The Bostonians by Henry James was a very interesting piece. James underlying tone for the spiritualism and mesmerism is clearly a picture of the time when the piece was written. I thought that is played an important influence in his writing. Ruth Hall by Fanny Fern is an unofficial biography of her own life as a women activist. One of the underlying issues that stands out from her novel is the way that she includes the lower-class women right along with the middle-class. This was not a common ideal shared by all women activists at this time. Both of these underlying issues in these books keep the reader interested it their works. During the nineteenth-century mesmerism and spiritualism were very prevalent in society. You can see James fascination with these forms of power and healing by his continual reference to Dr. Selah Tarrant, Verenas father. In The Bostonians Dr. Tarrant was introduced as a healer, almost as a freak. James does his best to attempt to portray Dr. Tarrant as an oddball, but continually brings him up throughout the novel. This shows James fascination with the aspect of spiritual healing and how powerful he believes it can be. It almost gives the reader the sense that the powerful and influential people of the time did not want to openly practice these beliefs, but did under the guise of their own homes or in some private forum. Another aspect of his fascination can be seen in how James portrays Dr. Tarrants daughter, Verena. She is almost given a mesmerizing power by James, to control the people around her. Verena does not use this power intentionally, but it just naturally comes out in her efforts for the women movement. She draws Olive Chancellor, her best friend, in with her mesmerizing power. So much so that when Basil appears in the novel and starts courting Verena, she becomes very protective. Basil too is hypnotized by Verena and her hidden powers. ...

COMPARISON OF REACISM TODAY FR essays

COMPARISON OF REACISM TODAY FR essays Racism today is both the same and different from racism of the early 1900s. Some areas of racism that are the same include that of the dark colored skinned population being segregated from whites and groups ganging up against people of a colored skin. Areas of racism that have changed dramatically include that amount of criticism the groups receive and the forms that they receive criticism. Some people have always looked down the dark skinned population upon for generations and generations. When the United States was formed black colored people from Africa where used as slaves, they where property and not a human being. Since this time many people have believed that whites are the supreme power and beings. Today, many people do not segregate based upon race or skin color. This was not the case in the early 1900s. At that time slavery was an issue that was just being put to and end and many people still saw the blacks as property. Other people saw the blacks as a hard worked for a low amount of pay. At this time, it was looked upon as British forming the new colonies. Most of these founders where of the white skin and found other skin colors as intruders or people in there way. These founders then just used them and saw them as cheap labor. Today though, many blacks make more or equal money and live a better or equal life then most of the white population. Look at a basketball or football team, it is mainly consisted of very talented dark skinned people. No longer do whites and blanks have different bathrooms and drinking fountains. We are on our way to becoming all one, being united. Unfortunately not all people feel this way and today there are still people that believed blacks should not exists and that they are just in the way. Blacks are still segregated in some ways today, but not near as much as they had been in the early 1900s. Racism is obviously not something God planned, it is a ...

Early 20th Century Socialist Movement Essays

Women in the Late 19th/ Early 20th Century Socialist Movement Essays Women in the Late 19th/ Early 20th Century Socialist Movement Essay Women in the Late 19th/ Early 20th Century Socialist Movement Essay The differences between the women of the working and middle class created a situation of conflict for the first wave of feminists, despite both groups shared intention of bettering the lives of women. The late nineteenth and early twentieth century socialist movements in Europe was no different, it attracted many people looking for a better life, including working class womens groups. Lily Braun was one of these women, however, in spite of her dedication she failed to be accepted by the working or middle class womens groups because her background and her radical ideas placed her outside the boundaries of both groups. The main points of contention between the working and middle class women were the means by which they sought to improve the lives of women. For working class women, this meant implementing laws to protect women in the workplace, and allowing them access to unions. Middle class women felt that any special treatment for women undermined their claim that women were equal to men, and rallied against legislation that would give women special treatment. Lily Braun, despite her status as an educated and middle class woman, sided with the working class womens idea of legal protection for working mothers, including maternity leave and outlawing hazardous work. This paper will begin with a brief discussion of the goals of working and middle class womens groups and why these similar goals lead to conflict between the groups and conclude with a discussion of how Lily Brauns unique feminism failed to find a niche within either group. For women of the new capitalist class, discrimination based on gender differences was blatantly obvious in their daily lives alongside men of their own class who had achieved many of the political, educational and economic rights that they were still, as women, unable to achieve. These were women who did not share all the privileges of aristocratic women, but who, unlike working-class women, saw all the discrimination they faced originating from their sex, rather than their class. In 1894, the bourgeois women’s movement came together as a loose federation in the League of German Women’s Associations (Bund Deutsche Frauenvereine). Bourgeois feminists concentrated forcefully on ‘equal rights’ issues, such as property rights, fighting to overturn legislation that held that a woman needed her husband’s permission to work outside the home; that she had to turn over to him all her property and income; and that she was under the legal guardianship of her fa ther, then her husband. In contrast to the middle class women’s movement’s concern over gender inequality, the working women’s movement focused on class structure as the root of their oppression. Capitalism’s drive to exploit labor as cheaply as possible, and a trend to shift production to the factory while social reproduction (taking care of workers, rearing children) remains within the home had not invented women’s oppression, but had made its own ‘woman question’ from sexual oppression inherited from previous class societies. At the founding congress of the Second International in 1889, Clara Zetkin argued that under capitalism, woman was enslaved to man, as the worker was to capital. Economic independence would enable working-class women to play their part in class struggle, but without pressing the struggle forward to socialism, this would only replace slavery to a man with slavery to an employer. So the key to achieving women’s emancipation was a fundamental change in property relations production had to be owned and controlled collectively, the household economy had to be socialized to free women from the domestic burden. The socialist program for women’s liberation had to be a program for the abolition of class society. In her book A Vindication of the rights of Women in 1972, Mary Wollstonecraft emphasized the need to clear prior errors most of her predecessors had made.   She referred to the middle class women which she belonged as easy to twist and obscure with stereotypic shenanigans which they (men) clearly understood was only to assist them remain in power unperturbed.   Most of the women in the middle class viewed immediate satisfaction being the opening of doors to work in different areas after a long period of suppression.   Arguably, this was a remarkable achievement; however, Wollstonecraft understood the long way they had to go before they could claim they were really free in deed.   After partly accessing the much desired resources by women, the conflict was evident as the capitalist higher class women could figure out that the most important aspect that should have been celebrated was the access to political power which could be used to fix their subsequent problems with ease.à ‚   Considered to be part of undermining the middle class women, she emphasized on the need to rise above the virtues and the common wants of affection that were traditionally thought to be derived from family integration and women submission to their husbands. European Consortium for Political Research (41-13) indicates that in order to ensure better and responsible reference to the women roles, the perfection of their nature and capability of happiness should have been estimated by the degree of reason, virtue and knowledge which distinguishes the individual as well as the laws which bind the society and therefore set a basic platform for coterminous evaluation.   However, this notion was overshadowed by a strong dark cloud which made their quest vague in the society.   Even after the direct agreement that their considerations required to be urgently addressed, the quest ebbed out after the initial achievements.   Scholars argue that poor leadership between women in the society formed the direct platform for the delayed quest of their rights.   Whereas most of them were at the middle class where leadership skills had mostly not been attained, the upper class group failed greatly in closing the gap.   Having been mostly born of t he high class, they had access to better education and therefore the capacity necessary for ensuring better articulation of their ideologies to others and the leadership.   However, this link was not offered as most of them looked at the system from an individualistic mode.   As a result, great differences arose from lack of effective harmonization and inclusion of all women’s contribution into the main call for the fight to their rights.   Human nature has been pointed out as one of the most resistant systems to change.   Even when the essence for change is very clear, strong reminders are required for direct application. According to Lily Braun Alfred Meyer (11-121), Bourgeois women’s work was difficult in application and had little to encourage togetherness among the women.   Women were generally less advantaged during their daily work and the course for natural duties.   Of greater stress were the married women who had to cope with family aspects and live with fast deterioration of their systems. Most of the men abused their wives and put them in worse conditions to support themselves after childbearing took off their much needed ability to work.   Besides, they were unable to support their growing children, effectively work and participate in the quest for their common rights.   Therefore, closer interlink and harmonic evaluation of the intrinsic effects was missing as an analytical tool to induce their quest.   By their nature, women had much more roles to play which were not recognized by the system and men in various positions of authority.   Arguably, the roles played by wo men were assumed and only women could tell the extent of the impacts to their lives in the society.   Lily Braun, Alfred G. Meyer (18-22) continue to say that the direct emphasis had to come from the women themselves and forcefully too if they wanted to achieve the much anticipated status in the society.   Similar to men, they were monolithic in approach which never subsided during the different problems.   During problems and quest for common desires, men were considered to have strong similarity which bound them together. Sociologists argue that during the late 19th century, the society was directly anchoring itself to ensure women were permanently imprisoned in domestic affairs with minimal external consideration for their development.   Arguably, most of the men supported the idea and viewed their wives as lesser spouses who were supposed to be involved more with domestic affairs as opposed to the â€Å"mens† work in offices.   This was not just depressing but morally wrong and drove women from both classes to quest for liberation from the common system that sought to devour them. However, differences in approach for solution to a single problem is considered to be highly fatal than the problem it seeks to address (Richards, 74-76).   Most of the bureaucrats saw a direct chance of articulating their weird ideologies that were highly destructive for them.   To ensure they remained relevant and supportive to the higher class ruling elite, divide and rule system was easily effected.   However, this mostly affected the majority of women who were in middle class.   Most of the upper working class were already enlightened and could not easily be divided as they had the much required resources and social status that the middle class was struggling to get.   Therefore, by promising better lifestyle to the later, they changed their approach to the common problem that was facing them prompting the contrast. Political setting during early 20th century portrayed a direct disrespect for human nature that was highly guided by gluttony driven by those in power.   At this time, political power and â€Å"leadership† was a reservation for men.   As indicated earlier, most of the women were looked down upon and their interests could only be represented by men in administration.   Considering the direct bureaucratic nature of men whose minds were mostly war driven by then, women had less space and consideration or success.   Arguably, it was this lack of political muscle that courted the undercurrents for dividing and deviating women’s quest for unity.   Men in authority saw threat from women unity as it dawned to them that women were more and could easily turn around the management and operations of their selfish systems.   Though this forms a strong debate that is far from over, most of the scholars argue that men played a bigger role in Lily Braun calls of unity than did women of different social classes. Conclusion Much is to be gained by studying the different perspectives and conflicts between bourgeois and proletariat women’s groups during the late nineteenth to early twentieth century, especially in context with their class based reaction to Marxism that set them at odds with one another.   We learn that what was collectively referred to as the â€Å"woman question† in those days, was actually a much more complex matter that was rooted in the differences between the upper and middle class. In fact, one can consider the position of the working class women as â€Å"reluctant feminists† because their main interest was escaping their enslavement to the capitalist bourgeois, it becomes clear why reconciliation between the two groups was impossible. However, feminists such as Lily Braun strove for unity between the two groups, knowing that a united front would catalyze the changes necessary to improve women’s position in society. Braun’s maverick tendencies ev entually lead to her downfall within the women’s movement, as both sides rejected her contributions that did not coincide with existing ideals. Looking back on Braun’s writing with a modern perspective allows her work to be fully appreciated as ahead of its time, despite the rejection she received from her peers. Braun’s proposal to combine the efforts of both bourgeois and proletariat women’s groups may have gone unheeded during her lifetime, and the policies both groups chose to implement as distinct factions surely lead to lost opportunities, however eliminating the class and gender bias is a problem still faced today. Perhaps, even in our modern times taking a second look at Braun would allow society to rise above these persisting issues and work to better society as a whole.

Critically discuss the key issues involved in studying children and Essay

Critically discuss the key issues involved in studying children and young people - Essay Example This paper takes a keen look at the way education brings a renewed confidence and adaptability within the ranks of the young people and the children in meticulous. Young people and children are always studied from a number of angles and perspectives. This is because they are hard to understand at the best of times. There is so much going on within their lives that it is difficult to comprehend all of this. It is a matter of fact that the children who attend schools are better off than the ones who study within the four walls of their homes. The reasons could be manifolds for the same however what is important is to ascertain what forces these children to remain within their homes and not go to schools at all (Guha, 2008). The reasons are immensely different from one another. These could include their parents’ financial conditions, their lack of access to proper schooling regimes, absence of any schools whatsoever or non-granting of admission to schools to name a few. The kids start learning from a very young age and it is understandable that no parent would want his child to lag far behind the other children in the society or city for that matter. The school ensures that the kids learn the basics of schooling right from the very beginning and they are taught the most basic of activities, habits and manners right from the start (Guichard, 2011). This also guarantees that the parents are lessened of their responsibilities, though to a small extent since they have to look after the chores of their homes as well. It is a fact that the schools act as significant role-playing instruments within the growth and developmental regimes of the young people and children. The manner in which the difference is brought to the fore is another pertinent consideration, and one that has a lot of bearing on the way these students conduct themselves within the global dynamics. On the part of the child who is being looked after and taught at the school, it is made sure that he starts interacting with the young ones of his age and friends are created all this while, which when seen in the proper perspectives, is something of a healthy exercise (Strong, 1998). The school makes sure that the young ones get to learn easily and in a quick manner without any such hiccups happening at a very young age. At school, he is provided mentoring as well as training on different subjects while at home, there are serious issues as regards to a student’s timely coaching and getting acquainted with the educational norms (Cotugna, 2005). Mentoring helps in understanding what the psyche of the student is and how he will cope up with pressure in the form of projects, assignments and exams. The same is however a missing link within the home schooling domains. Young people and children need help from different quarters of the society and more specifically from the domains of their own parents and guardians. This is because they have little knowledge about the world that they live in, and need guidance from all and sundry (Jenkinson, 1995). Children need to be given the support and confidence from their elders so that they can develop into better human beings in the future. It is for their own good if they comprehend the true essence of life and

Waffa Hassan Web Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Waffa Hassan Web Report - Essay Example d) Increased world transformation into E-learning courses from manual as new method of educating the society. e) Disadvantages of existing online training courses. Most existing online training courses are expensive. Their content is complex and time consuming. f) Risk assessment indicated that project failure has less impact and estimated annual cost will be below ?20 and around 200 hours. 3.0 Project Analysis â€Å"I project† has an established aim and objective as part of the road map to success. 3.1 Aim To present e-commerce web content in an effective and professional way that will demonstrate competence and professionalism. Produce content that is simple, intuitive and interesting to clients. 3.2 Objectives The â€Å"I project† objectives are the key guidelines and tools for success. They include: a) To combine web design and e-commerce techniques to develop attractive website. b) To integrate interactive visitor comments on the website c) To link the website with major social networking and gain reputation d) To attract and maintain web visitors e) To keep the website up to date f) To provide support using the WIX facilities g) To gain user trust by presenting correct, simple and time saving content h) To create a blog to listen and respond to the needs of the clients 3.3 Content The website content will focus on effective salesmanship through social networking. The content is based on online networking tools to increase communication. The content will be in English. Among the critical articles is the basic social networking article that illustrates to the user on how to use social networks like Facebook and Twitter to answer - what is the most important part of social... The website content will focus on effective salesmanship through social networking. The content is based on online networking tools to increase communication. The content will be in English. Among the critical articles is the basic social networking article that illustrates to the user on how to use social networks like Facebook and Twitter to answer - what is the most important part of social networking? (Harman   2012).   The website contains a guide on how SMEs can check their website for SEO quality and make improvements through the Daily SEO blog (Dover 2008).   It also demonstrating the importance and risks involved when employing these SEO techniques is critical. It provides a guide to developers as Do’s and Don’ts of SEO are sometimes hard to figure (Mitz 2012).  Ã‚   The SEO cheat sheet by Dover also provides guiding on what to avoid and what to employ when optimizing the websites (Dover 2008).   3.4 Industry Analysis  Website that provides online t raining courses are many, but to find one that provides simple and cheap course ware is rear. Majority of existing website use detailed videos and deal with a large scope of fields including history and sciences. The project’s approach is to concentrate on the provision of simple and cheap online training about effective social networking. With my past experience gained from enthusiastic career research and learning as a Business Information Technology at the Salford University, I seek to develop and maintain reputable professional and career record.

PSY-499 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

PSY-499 - Essay Example Pougnet, et al, (2011) there is significant difference in the cognitive command and social wellbeing of the children who have a longer and close attachment with the male parent In the development of a child from infancy, the immediate environment plays a vital role in defining the cognitive development of the child. This explains the varied behavior of children in various interactive social environments. In respect of the cardinal social input of the male parent to the child’s future behavior, children from parents who are incarcerated tend to differ marginally from the ones with their male parents around their daily life (Dick, 2011). Both the mother and the father have an influence in shaping the psychological development and maturity of the children. Finley & Schwartz,(2007) from their analytical experiments using Statistical tests of significance indicates that the mother plays primary role as far as the infant’s perception of the world is concerned. However as the child grows, the male parent also contribute immensely in his/her interaction with the new world and absorption of various concepts in life. Various scholars have explored the social inadequacies that are likely to erupt in the life of the child in the absence of the male parent. Some of the cases that may lead to this absence are also highlighted with more focus on male incarceration (Menning & Stewart, 2008). The effect of male parent’s absence is two sided in the social life of the child since there is a certain perception such children will develop about the absent fathers and this gradually alters the cognitive and moral interaction of the child in the society. The child’s language skills cannot be learnt from watching infant directed DVD’s or any audio-visual program from the media and it is this point where physical interaction of the male parent through playing with the child come in handy .Coakley,(2013) asserts that children are not able to relate visual objects with real

Essential question #4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Essential question #4 - Assignment Example Secondly, assessment also provides a continual feedback in how the students are able to actively retrieve information to facilitate learning that is long lasting. Standardized assessments are therefore necessary because they make students develop performance related goals. As the students get assessed, they are able to get motivated by their earned grades, the rankings as well as intrinsic rewards that result from assessment. These assessments deepen the students’ memory for the assessed materials. As such it enables better performance of students. Additionally, assessment provides the students with significant challenge which makes them work harder to improve their learning as well as playing to a student’s strength. According to Shaw, (2014) when a school is said to be doing well, the following is implied: the students are gaining new levels of understanding each time. â€Å"The hope is to help students gain expertise much like musicians improve with repeated guided practice†, John Bransford. Thus students expertise can be measured and progress shown. Secondly the students are buying in on what they are instructed. As such they are gaining knowledge. â€Å"The greater understanding, is so much more enriching than having a lecture and regurgitating information.† Sandomirsky. This implies that there is increased understanding of the curriculum and as such the students are getting gainful knowledge. Eisner, (2012) outlines; A school is thus said to be doing well when they ensure accountability as well as be flexible so that it leaves no child behind in the learning process. Additionally the school needs to have a rationalized approach dependent on easily quantifiable standards. Thus the purpose of a school assessment can be understood in various levels as follows: formative assessment will enable the teachers know how the students learn best. As such ideas are

Is enterprise risk management (ERM) an effective form of risk Dissertation

Is enterprise risk management (ERM) an effective form of risk management and value creation in the oil and gas industry and to w - Dissertation Example In effect, the major strengths and weaknesses that have been associated with BP Oil’s risk management policies shall be outlined and compared to risk management practices at Tullow Oil Ghana. This comparison will be done so that in later chapters, particularly the discussion chapter, the researcher will draw inferences on how Tullow Oil Ghana can learn from the strengths and weaknesses of risk management policies from BP Oil perspective. In relation to the general aim of the study, particular attention shall be paid to how BP Oil have both benefited and failed to benefit from the use of Enterprise Risk Management practices at different times of risk situations that the company faced. In order to follow the qualitative philosophies of the research, the researcher is going to dwell on the analysis of secondary data instead of the use of primary data. This will be done because of the impact that secondary data has on qualitative data, making it more subjective, but backed by empi rical evidence from related literature (PSA, 2007). 4.1 Analysis of Secondary Data on Risk Management Practices at BP 4.11 Risk Management Options at BP As far as risk management practices are concerned, there are a number of options that can be found throughout of existing data for oil and gas companies, of which BP Oil is one. Generally, BP Oil has been identified to have used three major risk management practices at different times of its operations. These options have been avoidance, knowledge and research, and controlling. Avoidance has been used in very high risk situations to ensure that there exist alternative approaches that do not bear any risks at all (Vinnem et al, 2007). The effectiveness of avoidance has however been found to be vested in a risk management environment where risk managers can be proactive enough to identify alternative options (Bly, 2011). Knowledge and research has been pointed out in some existing research data as not being an independent risk managem ent option but an effective tool for equipping the functionality of other risk management options. At BP Oil therefore, knowledge and research is not used in dealing with initial risks but is used as mop up risk management option to consolidate the efficacy of other options on practice. Commonly, research and knowledge is used in relation to the final risk management option at BP, which is controlling. Controlling has been found to be the commonest risk management option at BP for day to day risk situations (PSA, 2007). It has been found to involve the creations of a risk reduction plan made up of parallel development programmes (Vinnem et al, 2007). From the graph above, it can be observed that BP Oil chooses different risk management options depending on the level of risk that the company is presented with at any point in time. Where there is high risk, the company employs the use of avoidance; where there is medium risk, the company employs the use of controlling; and where there is low risk, the company employs the use of knowledge and research (K & R). 4.12 Risk management failures in the Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill In several sectors of risk management application, BP Oil was sharply criticised in the academic and professional cycles for some levels of inefficiencies that accompanied the handling of the Gulf of Mexic

Discussions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Discussions - Assignment Example The Enron fraud was revealed to the public in October 2001 and this ended up in the bankruptcy of the organization. While analyzing the Enron accounting impropriety, it appears that the company executives exploited accounting limitations with intend to create a false view of the cash flows and to prepare a misleading balance sheet. This inflated the profits. Fair accounting practices and proper annual reporting might have prevented the Enron scandal. Effect of Accounting Impropriety Although improper or illegal accounting practices may assist a firm to gain short term financial benefits, such practices can have dreadful consequences on the company in the long term. Undoubtedly, accounting malpractices will reduce stakeholder confidence in management and hence investors would be reluctant to invest in the company. This situation may adversely affect the firm’s overall financial performance. Management professionals opine that active stakeholder engagement in business is inevita ble to improve financial performance. Hence, in order to minimize the resulting impact of accounting impropriety on the business, making timely changes to the top management team and to publish proper annual reports is essential. ... Hence, it can be stated that bookkeeping constitutes the basic part or starting point of the accounting process. As Banerjee (2010) states, the scope of bookkeeping is restricted to systematic and repetitive recording of business transactions in ledger accounts through journal. In contrast, the accounting process involves the preparation of Trial Balance, Profit & Loss A/c, Income Statement, and Balance Sheet using accepted accounting principles. While bookkeeping is only a clerical job, accounting is an analytical job (p.4). Accounting Equation Accounting equation also referred to as balance sheet equation, reflects the relationship between assets, liabilities, and owner’s equity of a business. This equation is linked to the concept that total debits equal total credits. The accounting equation can be expressed as Assets = Liabilities + Capital. As accounting equation is fundamental to the double entry bookkeeping system, it can greatly support the work of professional accoun tants. More precisely, this equation is the basic idea behind the preparation of balance sheet. A good understanding of this equation can assist stakeholders, particularly investors to form potential business decisions. While making business decisions, it is important to give specific focus to liabilities rather than assets. Discussion 3 SOX and Accounting Professionals The Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) has been recently introduced in the United States to promote fair reporting of asset valuation. The SOX framework necessitates proper financial accounting disclosure and therefore organizations are required to produce complete information of assets, depreciation, values, and status in any accounting period (Omnix Asset Management,

Essential question #4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Essential question #4 - Assignment Example Secondly, assessment also provides a continual feedback in how the students are able to actively retrieve information to facilitate learning that is long lasting. Standardized assessments are therefore necessary because they make students develop performance related goals. As the students get assessed, they are able to get motivated by their earned grades, the rankings as well as intrinsic rewards that result from assessment. These assessments deepen the students’ memory for the assessed materials. As such it enables better performance of students. Additionally, assessment provides the students with significant challenge which makes them work harder to improve their learning as well as playing to a student’s strength. According to Shaw, (2014) when a school is said to be doing well, the following is implied: the students are gaining new levels of understanding each time. â€Å"The hope is to help students gain expertise much like musicians improve with repeated guided practice†, John Bransford. Thus students expertise can be measured and progress shown. Secondly the students are buying in on what they are instructed. As such they are gaining knowledge. â€Å"The greater understanding, is so much more enriching than having a lecture and regurgitating information.† Sandomirsky. This implies that there is increased understanding of the curriculum and as such the students are getting gainful knowledge. Eisner, (2012) outlines; A school is thus said to be doing well when they ensure accountability as well as be flexible so that it leaves no child behind in the learning process. Additionally the school needs to have a rationalized approach dependent on easily quantifiable standards. Thus the purpose of a school assessment can be understood in various levels as follows: formative assessment will enable the teachers know how the students learn best. As such ideas are

Discussions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Discussions - Assignment Example The Enron fraud was revealed to the public in October 2001 and this ended up in the bankruptcy of the organization. While analyzing the Enron accounting impropriety, it appears that the company executives exploited accounting limitations with intend to create a false view of the cash flows and to prepare a misleading balance sheet. This inflated the profits. Fair accounting practices and proper annual reporting might have prevented the Enron scandal. Effect of Accounting Impropriety Although improper or illegal accounting practices may assist a firm to gain short term financial benefits, such practices can have dreadful consequences on the company in the long term. Undoubtedly, accounting malpractices will reduce stakeholder confidence in management and hence investors would be reluctant to invest in the company. This situation may adversely affect the firm’s overall financial performance. Management professionals opine that active stakeholder engagement in business is inevita ble to improve financial performance. Hence, in order to minimize the resulting impact of accounting impropriety on the business, making timely changes to the top management team and to publish proper annual reports is essential. ... Hence, it can be stated that bookkeeping constitutes the basic part or starting point of the accounting process. As Banerjee (2010) states, the scope of bookkeeping is restricted to systematic and repetitive recording of business transactions in ledger accounts through journal. In contrast, the accounting process involves the preparation of Trial Balance, Profit & Loss A/c, Income Statement, and Balance Sheet using accepted accounting principles. While bookkeeping is only a clerical job, accounting is an analytical job (p.4). Accounting Equation Accounting equation also referred to as balance sheet equation, reflects the relationship between assets, liabilities, and owner’s equity of a business. This equation is linked to the concept that total debits equal total credits. The accounting equation can be expressed as Assets = Liabilities + Capital. As accounting equation is fundamental to the double entry bookkeeping system, it can greatly support the work of professional accoun tants. More precisely, this equation is the basic idea behind the preparation of balance sheet. A good understanding of this equation can assist stakeholders, particularly investors to form potential business decisions. While making business decisions, it is important to give specific focus to liabilities rather than assets. Discussion 3 SOX and Accounting Professionals The Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) has been recently introduced in the United States to promote fair reporting of asset valuation. The SOX framework necessitates proper financial accounting disclosure and therefore organizations are required to produce complete information of assets, depreciation, values, and status in any accounting period (Omnix Asset Management,

Project Management Essay Example for Free

Project Management Essay Due to the rapid changes in the working world and the business environment, organizations have been forced to transform as a way of surviving in the ever-changing business environment. According to Gardiner (2005), most organizations Have adopted projects as their means of implementing change within the organization. The adoption of a project oriented a approach, with its associated management framework, is sufficient to ensure greater success in the implementation of change within an organization. While use of best practices in project management may not guarantee success in the change of an organization, the presence of projects increases the opportunity for success. Studies have shown that, where a project manager is well equipped with the skills and knowledge of project management, projects work as the best tools for implementing change within the organization. The Concept on Project Management Project management refers to the discipline managing, planning and organizing resources to achieve successful completion of specific project objectives and goals. A project is in nature a finite endeavor, that specifies the date as to when it should begin, and the time when it should end, this is done in order to create a unique service or product that brings about added value, or beneficial change in a company. The finite character of the project is different from operations or processes of an organization, some of which may be permanent or functional work, that are used to repeated operations, with the aim of producing similar goods or services. Management of the two systems is always complex and difficult. There is therefore need to employ distinct technical skills and adopt separate philosophy of management, that would enable the implementation of the best project that can bring beneficial returns to the company. messages. Application of Project Management in Organizational Change According to Gray Larson (2006), in the regime where implementation for change is the motto for most organizations, projects are the best vehicles for implementing change. The aspect of project management has in fact become more significant than ever. In any company that needs to change its organizational structure so as to change with the improving technology, or in order to meet the needs and wants of the consumers, projects are used as the vehicles for implementing the required change, and managing the related change. It is however important to possess the ability to sustain and build project management in order to succeed in the implementation of change. The importance of project management has been illustrated by the efforts of Swiss Re organization by using all its business operations to meet the requirements of e-business. Projects were used as the main vehicles for implementing this change. Great concern has however been expressed in the way most projects once began fail to deliver, or get stopped while they are underway. According to a research carried out by Levine (2005), most of the Information technology projects implemented were discouraging with 90% of the projects being late to deliver change in the organizations. It has been shown that, 50% of the projects are never completed at the right time, while 30% of the projects began are stopped while still underway. Project management allows the implementation of change in an organization in a more organized manner likely to realize success. The major challenge of any form of project management is to attain the objectives and goals put in place, while at the same time adhering to project constraints which are usually in the form of time factor, budget and scope. The more ambitious and secondary challenge is the optimization of integration and allocation of inputs that may be necessary to meet the goals and objectives. The success of a project management is associated with the nature the project itself. Projects involve most of the key players in an organization, both the managers and the workers at the lowest level. Projects also involve the entire organizational participation. For instance, it involves people, money, provisions, motivation, communication and space, in order to achieve the project objectives and goals. With the contribution of all these elements, an organization is able to identify and make use of the best resources as a means of attaining the best results. Gray Larson (2006), have emphasized that the managers can easily identify the talented workers and most potential factors in the organization, and allocate them where they can give a maximum contribution towards the achievement of the company. Management of a project is often the key responsibility and province of a specific individual project manager. The manager however does not participate directly, but instead strives to maintain progress and motivate other factors involved in the process, so as to achieve the objectives. The aim of the project manager also involves striving to achieve productive mutual interaction of the active parties, in a way that the entire risk of failure is reduced. Studies have shown that, where a project manager is well equipped with the skills and knowledge of project management, projects work as the best tool for implementing change within the organization. The project manager should be well equipped with the vision and mission of the organization, so as to direct the process of the project in the right direction, failure to which the project may fail to deliver, be late to achieve its goals, or get stopped while underway due to discouragements. The project manager represents the interests of clients and has to implement, as well as determine the specific needs and requirements of the clients, based on the understanding of the organization they are representing. Gray Larson (2006), have expressed that the capability to adopt the available internal systems of the contracting organization, and to establish close links among the nominated representatives, is an important step to ensure that the major issues of quality, time, and cost among others are attained with the main aim of client satisfaction. A successful and focused manager should be in a position to envision the whole project from the beginning to the end, and should have the skills and ability to ensure that the vision is realized in order to achieve successful change within an organization. In order to attain successful change by use of a project, there is need for the project manager to consider the three key factors that include human resources, time and finance. If an organization is in need of achieving change in the shortest time possible, there is need to employ more people and resources towards the problem. Though this may increase the cost of the project, it may be the best way of achieving an organizational change in the shortest time possible. Doing the task quicker in fact helps to reduce the cost of the project, the organization may end up spending the same amount it may have spent if it was to carry the same project in a prolonged period. Researchers have established that, there is no single way of implementing a project within an organization due to the fact that each each enterprise is unique, has different characteristics, and different financial capability. It is therefore important for the project managers to consider the features that are appropriate and important within any organization. Consideration of the important factors guide the project managers to come up with appropriate and accurate projects that can easily realize the vision of a specific organization. Cultural Factors Considered in the Implementation of project Management According to Dye Pennypacker (1999), some of the important cultural organizational factors considered while implementing a project include the history of the previous enterprise implementations, record of failures or success of the company is looked into, as this provides an insight into what should be done to achieve success in the project. A consideration is also done on the types of operational work and projects to be managed, organizations that are able to clearly prioritize and identify their projects end up with rigorous features of a project from the initial stages to the end, unlike organizations that do not identify and prioritize their projects at the first stages of implementation. The number of departments involved within the organization are also considered. This directs the planners to consider if the project is meant to satisfy a small number of users, or whether the project should expand in the process, if other departments will be incorporate as time goes by, or whether all the departments will be involved from the begging, thus requiring the project to satisfy a large number of users from the on-set stage. The expectation and support of the senior leadership is considered as a very important factor, because their involvement drive acceptance, and appropriate expectation. This is important for the success and realization of the changes expected within the organization. The value to the end user and management is absolutely important to ensure that the change implemented through the use of the project satisfy the needs and expectations of all parties involved in the process. According to Levine (2005), organizations also consider the maturity of the desired project management discipline. The 2007 project server is often used as it contains important features for managing projects. Where an organization is considering the application of project management for the first time, it is not easy to incorporate all the capabilities at the first instance. Studies have established that, staging the first features in project management implementation help to establish both the short term and long term changes effected in an organization. Any changes that are likely to take place are considered due to the fact that, if too much changes takes place, the chances of implementation reduce, with most of the people within the organization becoming resistant to the change. Resistant to change is one of the human characteristics. Critique of Project Management Approach Researchers have however established that there still exist discomfort in the use of projects. While project management is preferred as the most efficient way of implementing change within an organization, use of too many projects may fail to deliver the desired results. Researchers have asserted that, most projects in organizations fail to deliver due to the use of poor project management practices, whose importance has been ignored by managers over a long period of time (Balogun, Hailey, 2004). Grundy, Brown (2002), have argued that the approach of organizational management is not effective on its own in the field of information technology, because they assume that IT solutions are developed by a technical team. The potential solution for organizations dealing with IT has been stated to be misaligned with the important characteristics of an organization like incentives or culture. Combining the management of projects in IT and organizational change management as it has been argued, cannot produce the desired results for the organizational change. Conclusion From the above analysis, studies have shown that, where a project manager is well equipped with the skills and knowledge of project management, projects work as the best tool for implementing change within the organization. Senior managers spend a lot of efforts and time promoting and formulating their strategy, but most of the time, they realize very little changes within the organization. The strategy may not yield the results expected, somehow the original goals are dissipated in the process of moving the strategy to implement the change, and the initial momentum may be lost before the anticipated benefits are achieved. Failure to implement change occurs as a result of the senior management trying to make use of the the existing structures and systems within the organization, the status quo, to change the same status quo. The adoption of a project oriented a approach with its associated management framework, is sufficient to ensure greater success in the implementation of change within an organization.

What is the Impact of HIV/AIDS on Women?

What is the Impact of HIV/AIDS on Women? ABSTRACT This dissertation will outline the major issues surrounding HIV/AIDS infection as it relates to women, with specific reference to women in Zimbabwe and the United Kingdom (UK). It will explore the reasons why women are increasingly at greater risk of infection than males. Underpinned by a feminist analysis of womens oppression, it will include a discussion of how biological, social, sexual, economic and cultural inequalities contribute to womens vulnerability. It will also look at the impact of HIV/AIDS on women and how these factors can influence them to seek services. The differences in what is deemed â€Å"social work† in terms of both definition and practice as well as the differences in the health systems and the healthcare workers involved in delivering services in both countries will also be explored. INTRODUCTION AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, a disease that makes it difficult for the body to fight off infectious diseases. The human immunodeficiency virus known as HIV causes AIDS by infecting and damaging part of the bodys defences its lymphocytes against infection. Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell in the bodys immune system and are supposed to fight off invading germs. People may be infected (HIV positive) for many years before full AIDS develops, and they may be unaware of their status. HIV can only be passed on if infected blood, semen, vaginal fluids or breast milk gets inside another persons body. HIV and AIDS can be treated, but there are no vaccines or cures for them (WHO, 2003). HIV/AIDS PREVALENCE IN WOMEN IN ZIMBABWE AND THE UK Increasingly, â€Å"the face of HIV/AIDS is a womans face† (UNAIDS, 2004). AIDS is now the leading cause of death in Sub-Saharan Africa and the fourth-highest cause of death globally (UNAIDS, 2002). AIDS is a profound human tragedy and has been referred to as the â€Å"worlds most deadly undeclared war† (Richardson, 1987). Women and girls are especially vulnerable to HIV infection due to a host of biological, social, cultural and economic factors, including womens entrenched social and economic inequality within sexual relationships and marriage. HIV/AIDS continue their devastating spread, affecting the lives of 16,000 people each day, with women, babies and young people being increasingly affected. The number of people living with HIV/AIDS has now reached almost 40 million globally (UNAIDS and WHO, 2006), and of these an estimated two-thirds live in Sub-Saharan Africa, Zimbabwe included. Zimbabwe is experiencing one of the harshest AIDS epidemics in the world. The HIV prevalence rate in Zimbabwe is among the highest in the world, although recent evidence suggests that prevalence may be starting to decline. In Zimbabwe 1.8 million adults and children are living with HIV/AIDS, with 24.6% of adults infected: women represent 58% of those infected among the 20- to 49-year-old age range. (Consortium on AIDS and International Development, 2006) In a country with such a tense political and social climate, it has been difficult to respond to the crisis. President Robert Mugabe and his government have been widely criticised by the international community, and Zimbabwe has become increasingly isolated, both politically and economically. The country has had to confront a number of severe crises in the past few years, including an unprecedented rise in inflation (in January 2008 it reached 100,000%), a severe cholera epidemic, high rates of unemployment, political violence, and a near-total collapse of the health system (AIDS and HIV Information, 2009). In Britain, HIV prevalence is relatively low and currently stands at 0.2% of the population. Statistics show that at the end of 2008 there were an estimated 88,300 people living with HIV, of whom over a quarter (22,400, or 27%) were unaware of their infection. This compares to the 77,000 people estimated to be living with HIV in 2007, of whom 28% were estimated to be unaware of their HIV infection. Of all diagnoses to the end of 2008, 45% resulted from sex between men and 42% from heterosexual sex, with black Africans representing 35% of newly diagnosed infections (HPA, 2009). According to the Health Protection Agency (2009), there has also been a dramatic increase in the number of women diagnosed with HIV. In the years up to and including 1992, females accounted for 12% of HIV diagnoses, but in 2008 that was 37%. Therefore, as HIV/AIDS is a global pandemic, the eradication of this health issue represents one of humanitys greatest challenges one that requires co-operation and comprehensive collaboration between scientific disciplines, governments, social institutions, the media, social work and healthcare professionals, and the general public (IFSW, 2009). Social workers, by virtue of their training, their commitment to human rights, and the fact that they are uniquely placed within a wide variety of health and welfare settings, can play a very effective role in the global effort to address the HIV/AIDS epidemic (IFSW, 2009). 1. CHAPTER 1 1.1 OVERVIEW OF GENDER AND VULNERABILITY TO HIV/AIDS While women are battling for equal rights throughout the international community, the existing power imbalance between men and women renders women particularly vulnerable to contracting HIV. Womens subordinate position places them at a considerable disadvantage with respect to their fundamental human right to control their own sexuality, and to access prevention, care, treatment, and support services and information. This subordination of women is mainly caused by the socially-constructed relations between men and women or, in other words, the patriarchal structure which is oppressive to women. (Walby, 1990, cited in Richardson, 2000) defines patriarchy as the â€Å"system of social structures and practices that men use to dominate, oppress and exploit women†, thus giving them greater opportunities to access services compared to females. Although the World Health Organization (WHO) and many governments are implementing educational programmes to teach women about protecting th eir health, traditional and cultural practices continue to perpetuate discrimination against women, in turn forcing women into high-risk situations. Unless proactive human-rights policies are enacted to empower, educate, and protect women with regard to their sexual autonomy, HIV/AIDS will continue to spread at an alarming rate and will have a devastating impact on all aspects of society. Even though the root of womens vulnerability lies in the imbalance in power between men and women, biological and sexual practices have an important role to play and mean that HIV transmission is unfortunately more efficient in women than in men. 1.2 WOMENS BIOLOGICAL VULNERABILITY TO HIV/AIDS Women are more biologically vulnerable to HIV than men; research has shown that women are at greater risk than men of contracting HIV both from an individual act of intercourse and from each sexual partnership. This â€Å"biological sexism† applies not only to HIV but to most other sexually transmitted diseases (Hatcher, et al, 1989). A woman has a 50 per cent chance of acquiring gonorrhoea from an infected male partner while a man has a 25 per cent chance if he has sex with an infected woman (Doyal et al., 1994). This is because the vaginal tissue absorbs fluids more easily, including the sperm, which has a higher concentration of the HIV virus than female vaginal secretions and may remain in the vagina for hours following intercourse, thus increasing womens vulnerability to infection. Not only are women more vulnerable to STIs than men, but â€Å"untreated genital infections, especially genital ulcer disease, syphilis and genital herpes, all predispose to HIV infection† (Doyal, 1994). While STDs are not necessarily gender specific, it is likely that women with STDs will remain undiagnosed and untreated for longer, increasing their risk of infection (Finnegan, et al, 1993). This is largely because women tend to remain symptomless for longer than men (Doyal, 1994). Even though much is known about the transmission of HIV to women through unprotected sex with men, less is known about the manifestations, progression, treatment and care of HIV/AIDS in women. Due to the lack of research we can at best speculate on the reasons for this. One reason may be the failure of medical professionals to pick up on possible symptoms which are often present in women: â€Å"existing diagnostic guidelines pay little attention to symptoms such as thrush, herpes, menstrual problems and cervical cell abnormalities that seem to characterise the early stages of the disease process in many women. Indeed a significant number are diagnosed only during pregnancy or when their child is found to be HIV positive†. (Doyal, 1994, p13) Therefore, if researchers persist in ignoring the biological differences, then the realities of the risks of infection and the disease progression in women will remain unacknowledged. As a consequence of this, women will continue to be diagnosed later than men, which ultimately leads to an earlier death. (Gorst, 2001,) Further research into biological differences and the effects of HIV on womens bodies is urgently needed. 1.3 TRADITIONAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS Traditional and customary practices play a part in the vulnerability of women to HIV infection. Practices such as early marriage and the payment of lobola in marriages make women and girls more vulnerable to HIV infection. Marriages among black women in Zimbabwe include bride wealth â€Å"lobola† if the couple is to be socially approved. Bride wealth is increasingly becoming big business in Zimbabwe, with some parents charging as much as US$2,500 plus five or more cattle for an educated girl. (IRIN NEWS, 2009) The insistence on bride wealth as the basis of validating a marriage makes female sexuality a commodity and reduces women to sexual objects, with limited rights and privileges compared to their husbands, who pay in order to marry them, thus leaving them without a say in their relationship. Patriarchal attitudes are also found in Christianity and these have strengthened the traditional customs that men use to control womens sexuality. (Human Rights Monitor, 2001) For example, Eves alleged creation from Adams rib has made women occupy a subordinate position in the Church as well as in the family. Women are therefore viewed merely as second-class citizens who were created as an afterthought. This is to say that if God had seen it fit for Adam to stay alone, then Eve would never have been created and hence women would not exist in this world. Such patriarchal attitudes have seen women being forced to be submissive to males. To make matters worse, once Eve was created she wreaked havoc by giving in to the Devils temptation and pulling Adam into sin. This portrayal of women as the weaker sex has made men treat women as people who have to be kept under constant supervision. St Pauls letter to the Colossians is one example of the letters which Zimbabwean men quote as a justifi cation of their control over women. The woman is expected â€Å"to submit to her husband† (Colossians 3:18) whilst the husband has to love his wife (Colossians 3:19). Therefore, because of these beliefs, women will remain passive and powerless in relation to sexual health, making them more vulnerable to HIV/AIDS. 1.4 CONFLICT AND CIVIL UNREST Migration or displacement as a result of civil strife, natural disasters, drought, famine and political oppression has a greater impact on womens vulnerability to HIV infection compared to men. About 75 per cent of all refugees and displaced people are women and children. The political and economic crisis in many African and Asian countries has caused many women to come to the UK in search of safer lives and employment (Freedman, 2003). The World Health Organization (WHO, 2003) states that female immigrant workers are more vulnerable to sexual barter as they try to negotiate for necessary documentation, employment and housing, which further increases their risk of HIV/AIDS infection. In addition, because of the lack of legal documentation these women will experience limited options, receive low status, receive low pay and are often isolated in their work, including marriage, domestic, factory and sex work. These situations place women in vulnerable and powerless positions, with little ability to refuse or negotiate safe sex, thereby increasing their risk to HIV/AIDS. Despite the risks associated with the migration process it is important to recognise the right to ‘freedom of movement and travel irrespective of HIV status (ICW 12 Statement and the Barcelona Bill of Rights, 2002). This was a focal point during the Barcelona HIV/AIDS conference in 2002, because the Spanish authorities denied visas to numerous people from the South many of whom were open about their HIV status. Some countries do have discriminatory policies regarding travel of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLHA) and others are instituting stricter controls. For example, Canada has recently introduced the need for an HIV test for people emigrating to Canada and Australia. Whilst they say it will not affect the final decision it is not clear why they need the information (Tallis, 2002). 1.5 POVERTY AND INEQUALITY Women and men experience poverty differently because of gender inequality: The causes and outcomes of poverty are heavily engendered and yet traditional conceptualisations consistently fail to delineate povertys gender dimensions resulting in policies and programmes which fail to improve the lives of poor women and their families (Beneria and Bisnath, 1998). Despite worldwide attention to existing inequalities and the way these violate a socially-just society, there is no society in the world in which women are treated as equals with men (Doyal, 2001). Major inequalities between men and women still exist in many places from opportunities in education and employment to choices in relationships. Gender and social inequalities make women more vulnerable to HIV infection, especially in societies which afford women a lower status than men. Worldwide, women and girls are disproportionately impacted by poverty, representing 70 per cent of the 1.2 billion people who live in poverty worldwide (Amnesty International, 2005), a phenomenon commonly referred to as the â€Å"feminisation of poverty†. Worldwide, women receive an average of 30-40 per cent less pay than men for the same work (Card et al, 2007). This economic inequality may influence womens ability to control the timing and safety of sexual intercourse. Specifically, economic dependence on men, especially those who are not educated and do not have good jobs, forces women to remain silent about HIV risk issues and to stay with partners who refuse to engage in safe-sex practices. Poverty also leads to greater HIV risk among women by leading them to barter sex for economic gain or survival (Weiss et al, 1996). Commercial sex work is the most well-known way for women to exchange sex for money, food, shelter or other necessities. Most of this sex will be unsafe as women will be at risk of losing economic support from men by insisting on safer sex. Where substance abuse is a factor, the means for obtaining clean needles may be traded for other essentials. Trading or sharing needles is a way to reduce drug-addiction costs. Risk behaviours and disease potential are predictable under such compromised circumstances (Albertyn, 2000, cited in Card, 2007). Educational inequality also contributes to a womans HIV risk directly, by making information on HIV/AIDS less accessible to her, and indirectly, by increasing her economic dependence on a male partner. In particular, studies show that more-educated women are more likely to know how to prevent HIV transmission, delay sexual activity, use healthcare services, and take other steps to prevent the spread of HIV (UNIFEM, 2004). Because many cultures value ignorance about sex as a feature of femininity, many young women are prevented by husbands, fathers, or other family members from obtaining information about HIV/AIDS. Others decline to seek such information out of fear for their reputations. Lack of education about the causes, prevention, and treatment of HIV/AIDS will increase these womens vulnerability to infection. Legal systems and cultural norms in many countries reinforce gender inequality by giving men control over productive resources such as land, through marriage laws that subordinate wives to their husbands and inheritance customs that make males the principal beneficiaries of family property (Baylies, 2000). For example, Zimbabwe has a dual legal system, recognising both common and customary law in marriage. This creates inequalities for many women upon divorce or their husbands death. Women in customary marriages, especially those who are not educated and who live in rural areas, make up approximately 80% of marriages in Zimbabwe, and are not entitled to the same rights as those married under common law; this means that they are often barred from inheriting property and land, or getting custody of their children, thus making them more vulnerable to male dominance and increasing their risk of getting infected with STIs (Womankind, 2002). 1.6 CONCLUSION Power inequalities at social, economic, biological, political and cultural levels mean that women continue to be increasingly more at risk from HIV infection. It is therefore critical that social workers and other healthcare professionals make sure that HIV/AIDS prevention and care programmes address the most immediate perceived barriers to accessing HIV/AIDS prevention and care services. Measures could include vocational training, employment, micro-finance programmes, legal support, safe housing and childcare services. Such measures would empower these women to have options and to take voluntary and informed decisions regarding the adoption of safer practices to prevent the transmission of HIV/AIDS (UNODC, 2006). There is also the need for a female-controlled form of protection which women can use to protect themselves, for example microbicides, which women can use without the consent or even the knowledge of their partner, thus enabling them to protect themselves if they are forced to engage in unprotected sex. 2. CHAPTER 2 2.1 HIGH-RISK GROUPS OF WOMEN Although there is a vast literature on HIV/AIDS, relatively little has been written about how HIV/AIDS affects women, and what constitutes a high-risk group. In part, this reflects the way AIDS was initially perceived in the West as a â€Å"mens disease†, so much so that until a few years ago a common response to the topic of women and AIDS was â€Å"Do women get AIDS?†, the assumption being that women were at little or no risk (Doyal, et al, 1994). This has never been true of Africa, where the appallingly pervasive epidemic has always been a heterosexual disease and where 55 per cent of those who have been infected were women. In recent years it has become increasingly clear that women can both become infected with HIV and transmit the virus. A study conducted by AWARE (Association for Womens AIDS Research and Education) in America found that women who inject and share needles, have sexual contact with or are artificially inseminated by a man, lesbians, sex workers and those from an ethnic minority, especially black women, were at increased risk of HIV infection (Richardson, 1987). The study also found that most people in these groups are underrepresented in prevention or treatment interventions, and often suffer social stigma, isolation, poverty and marginalisation, which place them at higher risk. Therefore, in this chapter I am going to discuss how some of these groups are vulnerable to infection, and what can be done to prevent and treat infection in these vulnerable groups without inadvertently increasing their stigmatisation. 2.2 PROSTITUTES There is a substantial body of research on the correlation between HIV/AIDS infection and female prostitution. Studies worldwide have revealed cause-and-effect relationships between AIDS and prostitution in a number of areas, including the use of alcohol and/or psychoactive drugs, and have revealed variance in the rate and circumstance of infection from one country to another (OLeary et al, 1996). For example, researchers have found the high rate of AIDS in Africa to be largely a reflection of exposure through sexual activity only, while in the US and Europe, transmission of the AIDS virus is more likely to come from prostitutes or customers who are also IV drug users. Many writers have pointed out that real social concern about HIV infection did not materialise until its potential â€Å"spread to heterosexuals† was recognised. What is less often pointed out is that concern for the â€Å"spread to heterosexuals† has mostly been manifest in concern for the spread to heterosexual men, not heterosexual women (Flowers, 1998). The expressed fear is that HIV will spread from women to men, allegedly through prostitution. In the press and the international scientific literature on AIDS, often the light cast upon Women in Prostitution (WIP) has been a harsh one. WIP have been identified as a â€Å"risk group†, a â€Å"reservoir of infection†, and a â€Å"bridge† for the HIV epidemic. Such technical, epidemiological language has depicted WIP as vectors of HIV infection (Scharf and Toole, 1992). Rather than presenting WIP as links in broader networks of heterosexual HIV transmission, women categorised as prostitutes have bee n described as â€Å"infecting† their unborn infants, their clients and indirectly their clients other female sexual partners, as though HIV originated among WIP (Scharf and Toole, 1992). Like posters from WWI and WWII which aimed to warn armed servicemen in Europe of the danger of contracting gonorrhoea and syphilis (Brandt, 1985, cited in Flowers et al, 1998), some AIDS-prevention posters have caricatured WIP as evil sirens ready to entice men to their deaths (New African, 1987, cited in Larson, 1988). Interestingly, there is evidence that some HIV-positive men may be inclined to claim that their infection came from a female prostitute, in order to cover up its real origins: sex with a man, or IV drug use. 2.3 PROSTITUTION IN ZIMBABWE There are many reasons why women engage in prostitution in Zimbabwe. Studies show that poverty and deviance are the main causes. Other studies have shown that many women engage themselves in prostitution by their own choice and see it as a career path whilst others might be forced into it (Chudakov, 1995). In Zimbabwe prostitution is illegal, and many women and young girls, especially orphans who engage in prostitution, are driven to it by poverty and economic dislocation, which is being caused by the current economic and political crisis the country is experiencing. According to the United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF), the hunger and disease-ridden conditions in much of Zimbabwe have forced many children into prostitution in order to feed themselves (UNICEF, 2008). Save the Children, a non-governmental organisation working to create positive changes for disadvantaged children in the country, estimate that girls as young as 12 are now selling their bodies for even the most meagr e of meals, such as biscuits and chips. They also state that the issue is further complicated by the growing presence of child traffickers in the region, looking for young girls to abduct and take to South Africa for the use of potential clients at the 2010 World Cup (Mediaglobal, 2009). Combating child prostitution and trafficking is complicated, but prioritising the alleviation of poverty with particular emphasis on fighting poverty from a childs perspective; prioritising education for all, with emphasis on improving access for girls; and provision of information to victims and survivors of child prostitution and/or trafficking, including information about available counselling and legislative services would be helpful (WHO, 2003). 2.4 PROSTITUTION IN THE UK Prostitution in the UK is different from that in Zimbabwe. The laws around prostitution in England and Wales are far from straight-forward. The act of prostitution is not in itself illegal but a string of laws criminalises activities around it. Under the Sexual Offences Act 2003, it is an offence to cause or incite prostitution or control it for personal gain. The 1956 Sexual Offences Act bans running a brothel and its against the law to loiter or solicit sex on the street. Kerb-crawling is also banned, providing it can be shown that the individual was causing a persistent annoyance (BBC NEWS, 2008). Though actual s are scarce, it has been estimated that at least 2 million women are selling sexual favours in Britain. The bulk of these are brothel prostitutes working in parlours, saunas or private health clubs. According to The First Post published on 18/08/08, prostitution was viewed as â€Å"the new profession†. The article stated that prostitution in Britain is booming, and that thousands of young women have chosen prostitution for independence and financial security. The key factor which has led to a huge rise in this kind of prostitution is the influx of girls from Poland and other Eastern European countries which acceded to the EU in 2000. A strong relationship also exists between UK prostitutes and substance abuse, which drives many into the sex business. Intravenous-drug-using prostitutes are particularly prominent in Scottish cities such as Glasgow (OLeary et al, 1996). According to researchers, 70 per cent of the citys streetwalkers are IV drug addicts, injecting heroin, temazepam and tengesic. In Edinburgh, which has the highest rate of HIV-seropositive IV drug addicts of all cities in Britain, a significant number of those addicts testing HIV positive have been identified as prostitutes. Even though sex workers can transmit HIV/AIDS, blaming them encourages stigma and discrimination against all women. It allows the men who infect sex workers and their own wives to deny that they are infecting others. Wives too can infect their husbands, who can in turn infect sex workers. It is therefore important to note that sex workers and their clients are not serving as a â€Å"bridge† for HIV transmission into the rest of the population. 2.4 LESBIANS Can women transmit the disease to other women through sexual activity? The answer to this question is crucial for a community that knows that HIV is within it even though the question might be difficult to answer as there is â€Å"very little† information on this subject (Richardson, 1987). Lesbians were seen as least likely to be infected, as there was an understanding of HIV as a disease which existed in specific groups of people, for example gay males and intravenous-drug users. Because of these biased attitudes toward people, rather than risk behaviours, no data was systematically gathered. This understanding prevented the healthcare system from defining sexual risk behaviours: it stressed people, not sexual behaviours. It has therefore been noted that most lesbians have been in â€Å"risk situations† or engaged in what would be considered as â€Å"risky behaviour† at some stage. Some lesbians inject drugs and may share needles. Also, a significant number of lesbians have had sex with men before coming out, and many will have had unprotected vaginal or anal intercourse Some may still have sex with men for reproductive purposes (Gorna, 1996). Some may be prostitutes who, for economic reasons or through pressure from a pimp, may have had unprotected sex with clients (Richardson, 1989). According to records from a London sexual health clinic for lesbians, 35 per cent of the lesbians who attended had had sex with a man in the previous six months (Gorna, 1996). As Gorna puts it, this emphasises the fact that â€Å"activity is not always consistent with identity†. In other words, â€Å"we are put at risk by what we do, not by how we define ourselves or who we are† (Bury, 1994, p32). Although the risk of HIV infection from sex between women is very small, it is important for lesbians to look at what they do, how they do it and with whom they do it, just like everyone else, as, â€Å"Low risk isnt no risk† (Richardson, D, 2004). However, they may find it difficult to access services and, if they become ill, they may experience special problems, given that the healthcare system is designed for and administered by a predominantly heterosexual population. There may be a lack of recognition of their relationships, which could lead to isolation and depression. For example in Zimbabwe homosexuality is illegal and punishable by imprisonment of up to 10 years. The President of Zimbabwe, Robert Mugabe, views lesbians and gays as â€Å"sexual perverts† who are â€Å"lower than dogs and pigs† (BBC NEWS, 1998). In 1995 he ordered the Zimbabwe International Book Fair to ban an exhibit by the civil-rights group Gays and Lesbians in Zimbabwe (GALZ). He follo wed this ban with warnings that homosexuals should leave the country â€Å"voluntarily† or face â€Å"dire consequences†. Soon afterwards Mugabe urged the public to track down and arrest lesbians and gays. Since these incitements, homosexuals have been fire-bombed, arrested, interrogated and threatened with death (Tatchell, 2001). This makes it difficult for lesbians in Zimbabwe to access information and other services, thus increasing their vulnerability to HIV infection. 2.5 ELDERLY WOMEN The number of older people (older than 50 years) with HIV/AIDS is growing fast. Older adults are infected through the same high-risk behaviours as young adults, though they may be unaware that they are at risk of HIV/AIDS. However, when assessing the impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic upon the worlds population, older people are often overlooked. HIV-prevention measures rarely target the older generation, despite the fact that many older people are sexually active and therefore still at risk of being exposed to HIV. The older population is steadily growing larger with the maturing of the â€Å"baby-boomer† generation as well as the availability of antiretroviral drugs which extend peoples life expectancy. Social norms about divorce, sex, and dating are changing, and drugs such as Viagra are facilitating a more active sex life for older adults (NAHOF, 2007, cited in Lundy et al, 2009). Heterosexual women aged 50 and older are most in need of the HIV-prevention message. The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS, 2006) estimates that around 2.8 million adults aged 50 years and over are living with HIV, representing 7 per cent of all cases. In the UK, the Health Protection Agency reported that almost 4,000 HIV-infected people who were accessing care in 2006 were aged 55 years or over. Data on this subject from low-income countries like Zimbabwe is fairly patchy. This is because HIV/AIDS surveillance is commonly conducted in antenatal clinics, as many people have little other direct contact with medical services. Data from antenatal clinics does not provide information about people who are above child-bearing age, thus making it difficult for healthcare and service providers to make policies that will impact on the elderly who are infected. Firstly, it has been noted that elderly women can be exposed to HIV via non-consensual sexual contact or rape. Research has shown that some criminals appear to target older women for sexual crimes because they appear to be, and often are, vulnerable to attack (Muram et al, 1992). Elderly women in institutional settings such as nursing homes may also be at greater risk. Some estimates suggest that up to 15 per cent of elderly nursing-home residents have been victims of either sexual or physical abuse, thus increasing their vulnerability to HIV infection (Collins, 2002). Exposure to blood tainted with HIV may also occur when an older woman provides care to adult children who may be suffering from AIDS (Levine-Perkell, 1996). Allers (1990) revealed that more than one-third of all adults who contract A